An Integrated Management Guide for the Monsoon Season in Nepal

Introduction

The arrival of the July monsoon in Nepal ushers in a period of intense agricultural activity, characterized by abundant water and vigorous plant growth. For nursery operators, however, this season presents a unique and formidable set of challenges. The combination of relentless rain, soaring humidity, and warm temperatures creates a high-risk environment where plant health can be compromised with alarming speed. Diseases flourish, pests multiply, and the very soil that sustains life can become a source of stress through waterlogging and erosion.

This bulletin serves as a comprehensive, actionable guide for Nepali nursery operators to navigate the complexities of the July monsoon. Its purpose is to shift the operational mindset from a reactive, often chemical-dependent approach to a proactive, resilient, and ultimately more profitable framework rooted in the principles of Integrated Pest Management (IPM). IPM is not merely about substituting one pesticide for another; it is a holistic decision-making process that integrates multiple strategies—cultural, physical, biological, and chemical—to maintain plant health while minimizing economic and environmental risks.   

July is a month of both high risk and significant opportunity. While the threats are real, the conditions for growth are also optimal. By implementing the integrated strategies outlined in this guide, nursery managers can not only protect their current stock from the immediate dangers of the monsoon but also build healthier soil, reduce long-term input costs, and enhance the overall resilience of their operations. This bulletin is designed as a field-ready tool to achieve these goals, transforming the challenges of the monsoon into a foundation for a thriving, sustainable nursery business.

Section 1: The Monsoon Environment: Weather Outlook and Strategic Implications for July

A fundamental principle of effective nursery management is to understand and adapt to the prevailing environmental conditions. In July, the monsoon is not merely a backdrop; it is the primary driver of nearly every major operational challenge. A clear understanding of the weather patterns and their direct agronomic consequences is the first step in developing a proactive management strategy.

1.1. Weather Forecast Analysis for Nepal

July is consistently the wettest month of the year across Nepal, as the summer monsoon reaches its peak intensity. For nursery operators, particularly in the Terai and mid-hills regions like Koshi Province, this translates into a specific set of climatic pressures.   

  • Rainfall: Expect frequent, often heavy, rainfall. In areas like Duhabi in Koshi Province, which receives a significant portion of its approximately 2,500 mm annual rainfall during this period, rain occurs on most days, often accompanied by thunderstorms. This constant saturation is the most visible feature of the month.   
  • Humidity: Persistent cloud cover and saturated ground lead to extremely high relative humidity, often ranging between 89% and 98%. This ambient moisture is a more pervasive threat than the rain itself, as it lingers even during breaks in precipitation, creating a constantly damp microenvironment around plants.   
  • Temperature: The monsoon is a warm season. Daytime temperatures consistently reach 32°C to 38°C, with nighttime temperatures remaining high, typically between 24°C and 28°C. This combination of heat and moisture accelerates both biological growth and decay processes.   

1.2. Agronomic Impact: Translating Weather into Nursery Risk

These weather parameters create a cascade of agronomic challenges that directly threaten seedling and plant health. The nursery manager's focus must shift from simply "managing rain" to "managing a high-humidity, high-saturation environment."

  • Waterlogging and Root Suffocation: The most immediate danger from constant, heavy rain is waterlogging. When nursery soil, whether in beds or containers, becomes saturated, the pore spaces normally filled with air are displaced by water. This creates an anaerobic (low-oxygen) environment that literally suffocates plant roots. As stated in the foundational Nepali nursery manual, नर्सरीमा रोग र कीराहरुको रोकथाम तथा नियन्त्रण, excess water prevents roots from breathing properly, leading to weakened plants that are highly vulnerable to subsequent attacks. This condition is a direct precursor to root rot and systemic plant failure.   
  • Proliferation of Fungal Pathogens: The defining characteristic of the July monsoon—what the Nepali manual describes as a "न्यानो, ओसिलो तथा सेपिलो ठाउँ" (warm, moist, and damp place)—is the perfect breeding ground for devastating fungal and fungus-like pathogens. The high humidity reduces plant transpiration and keeps leaf surfaces wet for extended periods, allowing fungal spores to germinate and infect tissues. The most critical threats in this environment are:   
    • Damping-off: Caused by pathogens like Pythium, Rhizoctonia, and Fusarium, this disease is the single greatest threat to young seedlings in Nepali nurseries. It can strike before seeds even emerge or, more visibly, cause newly emerged seedlings to rot at the soil line and collapse, wiping out entire trays in as little as two days.   
    • Root Rot: Caused by similar pathogens, this disease affects slightly more established plants, causing wilting, yellowing, and eventual death.   
  • Increased Pest Activity: The wet, warm environment is highly conducive to the proliferation of specific pests. Slugs and snails, which thrive in damp conditions, become voracious feeders on tender leaves and stems. More insidiously, the moist soil provides an ideal habitat for the larval stages of major soil-dwelling insects. These include:   
    • White Grubs (खुम्रे कीरा): These large, C-shaped larvae feed directly on the roots of young plants, causing them to yellow and die.   
    • Cutworms (फेद काट्ने कीरा): These nocturnal larvae hide in the soil during the day and emerge at night to sever seedling stems at ground level.   
  • Physical Damage and Soil Erosion: The physical force of heavy raindrops can damage delicate seedlings and compact the surface of unprotected soil, forming a hard crust that further impedes drainage. On sloped nursery sites or in beds, the runoff can cause significant soil erosion, washing away valuable topsoil and nutrients. Strong winds accompanying monsoon storms can also break stems and uproot plants.   

The analysis of the July climate reveals that effective water management is the single most critical factor for nursery success. Nearly every major threat—fungal disease, root suffocation, soil-borne pests, and erosion—is either directly caused or significantly exacerbated by the failure to control excess moisture. Therefore, the strategies outlined in the following sections are built upon a foundation of mastering water and drainage.

Table 1: July Weather Outlook & Nursery Implications

Weather Parameter

Expected Range

Primary Risk

Key Management Priority

Rainfall

High, frequent, and intense

Waterlogging, Soil Erosion, Physical Damage

Ensure excellent drainage in beds and containers; Protect soil surface with mulch.

Humidity

Very High (89-98%)

Fungal Disease Proliferation (Damping-off, Root Rot)

Improve air circulation; Increase plant spacing; Avoid overhead watering.

Temperature

Warm (24°C - 38°C)

Accelerated Pathogen & Pest Development

Maintain rigorous sanitation; Monitor for pests/diseases daily.

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Section 2: Foundational Nursery Resilience: Proactive Cultural and Physical Controls

The Integrated Pest Management (IPM) philosophy prioritizes proactive measures that create an environment inherently resilient to pests and diseases. During the monsoon, these foundational practices are not merely best practices; they are essential for survival. This section details the cultural and physical controls that form the bedrock of a successful monsoon management strategy. These controls are not isolated tasks but a synergistic system: good airflow is less effective in waterlogged soil, and good drainage is compromised by a poorly structured soil mix.

2.1. Enhanced Sanitation and Airflow: Creating an Unfavorable Environment for Pathogens

A clean and well-ventilated nursery is the first line of defense against the fungal pathogens that thrive in the humid monsoon air.

  • Rigorous Sanitation: The Nepali manual mandates that nurseries must be kept "सधैं सफा" (always clean). This is a non-negotiable daily activity in July. All weeds and unnecessary plant debris must be removed, as they harbor pests and increase humidity at the ground level. Most critically, any plant showing signs of disease must be immediately removed and disposed of far from the nursery site. Leaving infected material nearby creates a source of inoculum that can easily spread to healthy plants via water splash or wind.   
  • Promoting Air Circulation: Stagnant, humid air is a primary catalyst for fungal diseases like damping-off. To combat this, managers must actively promote airflow throughout the nursery. This can be achieved by:
    • Adequate Plant Spacing: Avoid overcrowding seedlings in trays or plants in beds. Proper spacing allows air to move freely between plants, drying foliage more quickly and reducing the time that fungal spores have to germinate.   
    • Pruning: Prune overgrown branches on plants within the nursery to open up their canopy. Similarly, prune the lower branches of large trees adjacent to the nursery, which can block wind and cast excessive shade, hindering both growth and drying.   

2.2. Advanced Water and Drainage Management: The Cornerstone of Monsoon Survival

As established, managing water is the most critical task in July. This involves both disciplined irrigation and robust structural solutions for drainage.

  • Irrigation Discipline: The natural instinct to water plants must be tempered by the reality of daily rainfall. Overwatering is a far greater threat than underwatering during the monsoon. The cardinal rule is to   

check the soil before watering. Insert a finger about an inch into the soil; if it feels moist, do not water. The Nepali manual explicitly warns that excessive watering is a direct cause of root and stem rot. When watering is necessary, avoid overhead sprinklers that wet the foliage. Instead, use drip irrigation or water directly at the base of the plants to keep leaves dry.   

  • Structural Drainage Solutions: Passive drainage systems must be in place to handle the deluge of rainwater.
    • For Container Plants: Ensure every pot, bag, or tray has ample drainage holes. Elevate all containers off the ground using bricks, simple wooden stands, or a layer of gravel. This prevents the base of the container from sitting in puddles of water, a condition that guarantees root rot.   
    • For Nursery Beds: Open-ground nursery beds must be designed for drainage. Construct raised beds to lift the root zone above the saturated ground level. These beds should be graded with a gentle slope of at least 2% to encourage water to run off rather than pool. Digging shallow trenches or drainage ditches alongside the beds can effectively channel this excess water away from the production area.   

2.3. Optimizing Nursery Media for Monsoon Conditions: Building Drainage from the Roots Up

The physical composition of the nursery soil is the final and most fundamental element of water management. A well-structured medium will drain freely, resisting the waterlogging that plagues heavy, compacted soils.

  • Soil Mixture Engineering: The ideal nursery medium for the monsoon is light, porous, and well-aerated. The Nepali manual recommends using a "बलौटे माटो" (sandy soil) as a base for its excellent drainage properties. This is strongly supported by research conducted in Nepal, which demonstrated that adding sand to a standard soil and compost mix significantly reduced the incidence of damping-off in cauliflower and cabbage seedlings compared to a mix without sand.   
    • Practical Application: To create an optimal mix, amend native soil with both organic matter and drainage enhancers. A highly effective and validated ratio for nursery beds is two parts native topsoil, one part well-rotted compost, and one part coarse sand. For containers, where drainage is even more critical, perlite can be used in place of or in addition to sand to further improve aeration and reduce weight.   
  • Strategic Mulching: Applying a layer of organic mulch, such as straw, wood chips, or dried leaves, is a critical practice with a dual benefit in the monsoon.
    1. Prevents Soil Compaction: The mulch layer absorbs the impact of heavy raindrops, preventing the soil surface from being hammered into a dense, impermeable crust.   
    2. Reduces Disease Transmission: This is a crucial, often-overlooked function. The mulch acts as a physical barrier, preventing soil-borne pathogens like Rhizoctonia and Pythium from being splashed from the soil surface onto the susceptible stems and lower leaves of seedlings. This "soil splash" is a primary vector for disease transmission during heavy rain.   

Table 2: Recommended Well-Draining Nursery Soil Mixes for Monsoon

Application

Soil Component

Compost Component

Drainage Amendment

Recommended Ratio (by volume)

Seed Trays & Small Pots

Sieved Forest Topsoil

Sieved, Well-Rotted Compost

Coarse Sand or Perlite

2 : 1 : 1

Large Polybags

Forest Topsoil

Well-Rotted Compost

Coarse Sand

2 : 1 : 1

Raised Nursery Beds

Native Topsoil

Well-Rotted Compost

Coarse River Sand

2 : 1 : 1

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Section 3: Integrated Disease Management: A Proactive Approach to Fungal Threats

The warm, saturated conditions of the July monsoon create a perfect storm for fungal disease outbreaks, which can lead to catastrophic losses in a nursery. An Integrated Pest Management (IPM) approach to disease control is not a single action but a hierarchical strategy, prioritizing prevention and biological controls over chemical interventions. This tiered approach, structured like a pyramid, builds resilience from the ground up, reserving chemical treatments as a targeted, last-resort measure.

3.1. Key Pathogen Profiles: Know Your Enemy

Accurate identification is the first step toward effective management. In July, two primary fungal disease complexes dominate.

  • Damping-off (ड्याम्पिङ्ग अफ): This is arguably the most destructive disease of young seedlings in Nepali nurseries. It is caused by a group of common soil-dwelling fungi and fungus-like organisms, primarily   

Pythium, Rhizoctonia, and Fusarium species. The disease manifests in two main forms:   

    • Pre-emergence Damping-off: The pathogen attacks and rots the seed before it can germinate. This often results in poor, patchy emergence, which can be mistaken for poor seed quality.   
    • Post-emergence Damping-off: This is the classic symptom where newly emerged seedlings are attacked at or just above the soil line. The stem becomes water-soaked, thin, and constricted, causing the seedling to topple over and die. A whitish, web-like fungal growth may be visible on the collapsed seedlings. This form of the disease spreads with terrifying speed and can destroy an entire seedbed or tray within 48 hours if left unchecked.   
  • Root Rot (जरा कुहिने रोग): This disease affects slightly older, more established seedlings and plants. The same pathogens that cause damping-off can also cause root rot, especially Fusarium and Rhizoctonia. The above-ground symptoms are less dramatic but equally fatal over time: the plant's growth will be stunted, the leaves (starting with the oldest) will turn yellow, and the plant will wilt, especially during the warmer parts of the day. The definitive diagnosis requires examining the roots. Healthy roots are typically white and firm; if snapped, they break cleanly. Diseased roots are brown, soft, and mushy. A key diagnostic sign described in the Nepali manual is that if you gently pull on a diseased root, the outer layer (cortex) will easily slough off, leaving the inner core (stele) behind.   

3.2. An IPM-First Control Strategy

The most effective and sustainable way to manage these diseases is to layer multiple control tactics, starting with the most fundamental and proactive.

Step 1: Cultural Prevention (The Foundation)

This is the broadest and most important layer of the IPM pyramid. As detailed in Section 2, the best control is to create an environment hostile to fungi. Key actions include: ensuring excellent soil drainage, avoiding overwatering, maximizing air circulation through proper spacing, and maintaining strict nursery sanitation. Furthermore, using sterilized potting media and clean containers is critical. For soil beds, solarization (covering moist soil with clear plastic during sunny periods) or soil burning can effectively reduce the initial pathogen load.   

Step 2: Biological Suppression (The Proactive Defense)

This layer involves actively introducing beneficial microorganisms to the nursery soil to protect plants from pathogens. This strategy directly addresses a major constraint to IPM adoption in Nepal: the perceived lack of available bio-pesticides. By creating these inputs on-site, nurseries can build a powerful, self-sustaining defense system.   

The most important biological control agent for fungal diseases is Trichoderma spp. This is a genus of beneficial fungi that acts as a potent antagonist to pathogens like Pythium, Rhizoctonia, and Fusarium.   

Trichoderma works in several ways: it competes with pathogens for space and nutrients, it can parasitize and kill them directly, and it stimulates the plant's own defense systems.

The most effective application method is to incorporate Trichoderma-enriched compost (Tricho-compost) into the nursery soil mix before planting. This establishes a protective microbial shield around the roots from the moment of germination.   

A detailed, step-by-step guide for preparing Tricho-compost is provided in Section 5.1.

Step 3: Organic Fungicidal Sprays (The Reactive Defense)

If disease symptoms begin to appear despite preventative measures, organic sprays can be used to manage the infection. These are generally less harsh than synthetic chemicals and should be the first line of reactive treatment.

  • Neem-Based Products: Neem oil has fungicidal properties and can help control the spread of diseases like powdery mildew and some leaf spots. Applying neem cake to the soil can also help suppress fungal pathogens. A standard spray consists of 5 ml of neem oil mixed with 1 liter of water and a few drops of mild soap to act as an emulsifier.   
  • Baking Soda (Sodium Bicarbonate): A spray made from baking soda can be effective as a preventative measure, particularly against powdery mildew. It works by raising the pH on the leaf surface, making it difficult for fungal spores to germinate. A typical recipe is one tablespoon of baking soda and a half-teaspoon of mild liquid soap mixed in one gallon (approx. 4 liters) of water. It is important to test this on a few leaves first, as it can cause foliage burn on some sensitive plants.   

Step 4: Judicious Chemical Intervention (The Last Resort)

The use of synthetic chemical fungicides should be the final option, reserved for severe outbreaks where the economic viability of the nursery stock is at immediate risk. The Nepali manual, नर्सरीमा रोग र कीराहरुको रोकथाम तथा नियन्त्रण, provides specific, locally understood recommendations that should be followed with extreme care. The specific chemical required can depend on the pathogen, underscoring the value of the broad-spectrum protection offered by biologicals like   

Trichoderma.

  • For Post-emergence Damping-off: Apply a soil drench using a solution of 25 grams of Blitox (blue powder) or Dithane M-45 (yellow powder) mixed in 5 liters of water. Apply with a watering can twice a week until the disease is controlled.   
  • For Root Rot:
    • If caused by Fusarium species, prepare a drench by mixing 2 grams of Thiram or Captan in 1 liter of water.   
    • If caused by Rhizoctonia species, prepare a drench by mixing 2 grams of Brassicol in 1 liter of water.   

It is imperative that any use of these chemicals is accompanied by the strict safety protocols detailed in Section 6 of this bulletin.

Table 3: IPM Guide for Common Fungal Diseases

Disease

Key Symptoms

Favorable Conditions

Control Strategy (Tiered)

Specific Action

Damping-off (ड्याम्पिङ्ग अफ)

Seedlings rot at soil line, collapse. White mold may be present.

High humidity, warm soil, overwatering, poor air circulation.

1. Cultural:

Improve drainage; use sterilized soil/pots; increase spacing; avoid overwatering.

2. Biological:

Incorporate Tricho-compost into soil mix before planting.

3. Organic:

Use preventative sprays of neem oil or baking soda solution.

4. Chemical (Last Resort):

Drench affected area with Blitox or Dithane M-45 (25g in 5L water).

Root Rot (जरा कुहिने रोग)

Stunted growth, yellowing leaves, wilting. Roots are brown, soft, and mushy.

Waterlogged soil, previous crop infection.

1. Cultural:

Remove and destroy infected plants; improve soil drainage immediately.

2. Biological:

Use Tricho-compost in potting media for all plants to prevent spread.

3. Organic:

Apply neem cake to the soil around healthy plants.

4. Chemical (Last Resort):

Drench with Thiram/Captan (for Fusarium) or Brassicol (for Rhizoctonia) at 2g/L water.

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Section 4: Integrated Pest Management: A Sustainable Strategy for Insect Control

The monsoon's dampness not only favors diseases but also encourages the proliferation of specific insect pests that can cause significant damage to nursery stock. The battleground for insect control in July is primarily in the soil. The most damaging pests are soil-dwelling larvae that thrive in the moist conditions, attacking seedlings from below the surface where they are hardest to see and control. An IPM strategy for these pests must therefore focus on soil health, cultural disruption, and the use of soil-acting biological and botanical agents.

4.1. Major Pest Profiles for the Monsoon Season

Vigilant monitoring for these key pests is essential for early intervention.

  • White Grubs (खुम्रे कीरा): These are the larvae of various scarab beetles. They are large (up to 3 cm), fleshy, C-shaped, and white with a brown head capsule. They live in the soil, especially in open nursery beds and compost piles, and are a major pest of young plants. They feed voraciously on roots, causing seedlings to first turn yellow, then stop growing, and finally wilt and die. Digging around the base of a wilting plant will often reveal one or more grubs.   
  • Cutworms (फेद काट्ने कीरा): These are the caterpillars of several species of night-flying moths. The larvae are plump, soft-bodied, and typically curl into a 'C' shape when disturbed. They are notorious for their habit of feeding at night, hiding just below the soil surface during the day. They sever the stems of young, tender seedlings at ground level, felling the plant without necessarily consuming all of it. A single cutworm can destroy multiple seedlings in one night.   
  • Snails and Slugs: These mollusks are highly active in the wet, humid conditions of the monsoon. They feed at night, chewing irregular holes in leaves and stems and leaving behind a characteristic slime trail. They can cause significant damage to low-lying foliage and young seedlings.   

4.2. A Multi-tactic Control Framework

A layered defense is the most effective approach to managing these diverse pests, prioritizing non-chemical methods.

Step 1: Cultural & Mechanical Tactics (Prevention & Disruption)

These methods aim to disrupt the pest's life cycle and physically remove them from the nursery.

  • Soil Management: In fallow or unused areas of the nursery, periodic deep ploughing or tilling, especially during dry breaks in the weather, is highly effective. This practice brings dormant grubs, cutworm larvae, and pupae to the surface, exposing them to the sun and to natural predators like birds.   
  • Sanitation and Trapping: Maintain a clean, weed-free nursery to eliminate hiding spots for pests. For caterpillars and cutworms, one can create simple traps by placing small piles of weeds or boards in the field. Pests will hide under them during the day, allowing for easy collection and destruction in the morning.   
  • Physical Removal: Daily inspection is a cornerstone of IPM. Hand-picking and destroying visible pests like grubs (found when tilling), cutworms (found at the base of felled seedlings), and snails/slugs (found in the evening or early morning) is a highly effective, cost-free control method.   

Step 2: Harnessing Biological Allies (Targeted Suppression)

For soil-dwelling pests, biological control agents that act within the soil are exceptionally effective. Their use is a key strategy for reducing reliance on chemical soil treatments.

  • Entomopathogenic Fungi (EPF): The fungus Metarhizium anisopliae is a natural and potent enemy of white grubs and cutworms. When spores of this fungus come into contact with an insect larva, they germinate, penetrate its cuticle, and grow inside, killing the host. Research in Nepal has confirmed the presence of indigenous strains and their potential for controlling white grubs.   

Metarhizium can be incorporated into compost or applied as a soil drench, creating a persistent, disease-causing environment for pests.   

  • Entomopathogenic Nematodes (EPNs): These are microscopic, beneficial roundworms that are natural parasites of soil insects. Species like Steinernema carpocapsae and Heterorhabditis bacteriophora actively hunt for hosts like grubs and cutworm larvae in the soil. Once they find a host, they enter its body and release symbiotic bacteria, which kill the pest within 48 hours. The nematodes then reproduce inside the dead larva, releasing a new generation of infective juveniles to seek out more pests. EPNs are completely safe for plants, humans, pets, and beneficial insects like earthworms and bees. Surveys have confirmed the natural occurrence of several EPN species in Nepal, making them a highly suitable and sustainable local solution. They are applied by mixing with water and drenching the soil, preferably in the evening or on a cloudy day to protect them from UV light.   
  • Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt): This is a naturally occurring soil bacterium that is toxic to certain insect larvae when ingested. It is particularly effective against caterpillars, including cutworms. It can be mixed with a bait, such as wheat bran (2g Bt per 1kg bran), and broadcast over nursery beds before planting to target cutworms already present in the soil.   

Step 3: Botanical Pesticides (Repellents & Antifeedants)

Locally available plants can be used to create potent pest control solutions.

  • Neem-Based Products: Neem is a powerful tool in the IPM arsenal. Incorporating neem cake (the residue left after oil extraction) into the soil during bed preparation is an excellent way to deter grubs and nematodes. A foliar spray of   

neem oil (5 ml per liter of water) acts as a repellent, antifeedant, and growth disruptor for a wide range of pests, including aphids and caterpillars.   

  • Jholmal: The fermented bio-pesticides Jholmal-2 and Jholmal-3 (detailed in Section 5.2) are powerful broad-spectrum repellents. Regular spraying can deter many pests from feeding on nursery plants.   

Step 4: Responsible Chemical Use (Targeted Intervention)

As with disease control, chemical insecticides should be a final recourse, used only when pest populations reach economically damaging levels and other methods have failed. The recommendations from the Nepali manual provide context-specific guidance.   

  • For Grubs (खुम्रे कीरा): During bed preparation, mix Malathion dust (5-10 grams per square meter) or Thimet (20 grams per square meter) into the soil up to a depth of 30 cm.   
  • For Cutworms (फेद काट्ने कीरा): Mix 5% Sumicidin powder into the soil at a rate of 6 grams per square meter. Alternatively, prepare a 0.05% solution of Malathion or Metacid (1 ml of chemical in 2 liters of water) and drench the soil around the base of the seedlings.   

The adoption of these IPM strategies is not just an ecological decision but a sound economic one. Studies conducted in Nepal have shown that integrating cultural, biological, and botanical controls can significantly improve the benefit-cost ratio for farmers by reducing expensive chemical inputs while maintaining or even increasing yields and plant quality.   

Table 4: IPM Guide for Common Monsoon Insect Pests

Pest

Identification & Damage

Control Strategy (Tiered)

Specific Action

White Grubs (खुम्रे कीरा)

Large, C-shaped white larvae in soil. Feed on roots, causing wilting and death.

1. Cultural/Mechanical:

Till fallow soil to expose grubs to predators; Hand-pick during soil preparation.

2. Biological:

Drench soil with Metarhizium anisopliae or beneficial nematodes (Heterorhabditis bacteriophora).

3. Botanical:

Incorporate neem cake into the soil mix during bed preparation.

4. Chemical (Last Resort):

Mix Malathion dust (5-10 g/m²) into soil before planting.

Cutworms (फेद काट्ने कीरा)

Plump larvae that hide in soil. Emerge at night to cut seedling stems at the base.

1. Cultural/Mechanical:

Place collars around seedling stems; Hand-pick at night or early morning around damaged plants.

2. Biological:

Apply Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) bait; Drench soil with beneficial nematodes (Steinernema carpocapsae).

3. Botanical:

Spray soil and plant bases with strong garlic/chili or Jholmal-3 repellent.

4. Chemical (Last Resort):

Drench soil with Malathion or Sumicidin as per label directions.

Snails & Slugs

Chew irregular holes in leaves; leave slime trails. Active in wet conditions.

1. Cultural/Mechanical:

Hand-pick at night; Create barriers of crushed eggshells or wood ash around plants.

2. Biological:

Encourage natural predators like birds.

3. Botanical:

Repellents are less effective; focus on physical barriers and removal.

4. Chemical (Last Resort):

Use commercially available slug and snail baits sparingly and according to instructions.

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Section 5: Field Manual: Preparing and Applying Local, Sustainable Inputs

A significant barrier to the adoption of Integrated Pest Management in Nepal is the lack of consistent availability and high cost of commercial biological and organic products. This section provides a practical, step-by-step field manual to empower nursery operators to create their own high-value, low-cost inputs from locally available resources. Mastering these techniques transforms farm byproducts like manure, urine, and weeds into powerful tools for building soil health and managing pests and diseases, creating a more sustainable and self-reliant nursery operation.   

5.1. Guide to Trichoderma-Enriched Compost (Tricho-Compost)

Tricho-compost is the single most powerful proactive tool for managing the fungal diseases rampant during the monsoon. It is not just fertilizer; it is a living, defensive shield for your plants' roots. By inoculating compost with the beneficial fungus Trichoderma, you create a medium teeming with microbes that actively suppress and outcompete pathogens like Pythium, Rhizoctonia, and Fusarium.   

Ingredients:

  • Nitrogen Source: Cow dung (fresh or dry) is ideal.   
  • Carbon Source: Straw, paddy husk, sawdust, or other dried plant matter.   
  • Trichoderma Culture: A starter culture is needed. This can be purchased as a powder (e.g., from agricultural supply stores or organizations promoting IPM).   
  • Fungus Food (Optional but Recommended): Molasses or maize bran provides an initial food source to help the Trichoderma multiply rapidly.   
  • Water: Chlorine-free water (rainwater or tap water left to stand for 24 hours).

Step-by-Step Preparation Method:

  1. Site Selection: Choose a shaded area protected from direct sun and heavy rain. Composting in a heap is better than in a pit during the monsoon to avoid waterlogging. A concrete floor or a large plastic sheet can be used as a base.   
  2. Layering: Build the compost pile in layers to ensure a good mix of materials. A common method is to create a pile approximately 1 meter wide and 1 meter high.   
    • Start with a 10-15 cm layer of the carbon source (e.g., straw).   
    • Add a 10-15 cm layer of the nitrogen source (e.g., cow dung) on top.   
  3. Moistening: Lightly sprinkle each layer with water. The goal is for the material to be damp like a wrung-out sponge, not soaking wet.   
  4. Inoculation: Mix the Trichoderma culture with its food source (if using molasses, dissolve it in the water). Sprinkle this inoculum evenly over each layer of the compost pile. A general guide is to use about 500 grams of Trichoderma culture for a one-cubic-meter pile.   
  5. Build the Pile: Continue alternating layers of carbon, nitrogen, moisture, and inoculum until the pile reaches a height of about 1 to 1.5 meters.   
  6. Covering: Cover the entire pile with a plastic sheet or tarpaulin. This helps to retain the heat generated during composting, maintain moisture, and protect the pile from being drenched by monsoon rains.   
  7. Aeration (Turning): The composting process requires oxygen. Every 10 to 15 days, uncover the pile and turn it completely, moving the material from the outside to the inside and vice-versa. This ensures all parts of the pile decompose evenly and provides necessary aeration. The pile should heat up to 50-60°C; if it doesn't, it may be too dry (add water) or too dense (add more bulky carbon material).   
  8. Maturity: The Tricho-compost is ready for use in approximately 2 to 3 months, depending on the temperature. Mature compost will be dark, crumbly, and have a pleasant, earthy smell. The original materials will no longer be recognizable.   

Application: The primary use of Tricho-compost is as a soil amendment. Mix it thoroughly with your nursery soil and sand/perlite before filling seed trays, polybags, or raised beds. This ensures that seedlings are protected by the beneficial fungi from the very beginning of their life.   

5.2. Guide to Jholmal Preparation and Use

Jholmal is a traditional Nepali fermented liquid preparation that serves as both a bio-fertilizer and a bio-pesticide. It is a low-cost, highly effective solution that leverages farm-readily available resources like animal urine and dung, and local botanicals. There are three main types, each with a specific purpose. All recipes are for a 50-liter airtight container.   

Table 5: Quick-Reference Guide for Jholmal Preparation & Application

Type

Primary Use

Key Ingredients (for 50L)

Fermentation Time

Dilution (Jholmal:Water)

Application

Jholmal-1

Bio-fertilizer

17kg Dung, 16L Urine, 16L Water, 1L Jeevatu™

~15 days

1:3

Soil drench every 2 weeks

Jholmal-2

Mild Bio-pesticide

24.5L Urine, 24.5L Water, 1L Jeevatu™

~15 days

1:5 (young plants), 1:3 (older plants)

Foliar spray 1-2 times/week

Jholmal-3

Strong Bio-pesticide

10kg Botanical parts, 16L Urine, 16L Water, 1L Jeevatu™

21-30 days

1:5 (young plants), 1:3 (older plants)

Foliar spray weekly (preventative) or twice weekly (curative)

Export to Sheets

Preparation Steps (General):

  1. Place all ingredients in an airtight plastic drum or container.
  2. Stir the mixture thoroughly every 3 days with a long stick.
  3. Keep the container sealed when not stirring.
  4. The preparation time depends on temperature; it will be faster in warmer weather.   
  5. For Jholmal-3, use a mixture of locally available plants known for their pesticidal properties, such as Neem (Azadirachta indica), Titepati (Artemisia vulgaris), Asuro (Justicia adhatoda), Timur (Zanthoxylum armatum), and Khirro (Sapium insigne). Chop the plant materials finely before adding.   
  6. Once fermented, Jholmal-3 should be filtered through a cloth to remove solid debris before spraying to avoid clogging the sprayer nozzle.   

Application Notes:

  • Always dilute Jholmal with water as per the ratios in the table before application.
  • For foliar sprays (Jholmal-2 and 3), ensure thorough coverage of both the upper and lower surfaces of the leaves.
  • Spray in the early morning or late evening to avoid leaf burn and to be most effective when pests are active.

5.3. Guide to Simple Homemade Botanical Pesticides

For quick, targeted pest control, these simple botanical sprays can be made and used within 24 hours.

  • Neem Leaf Extract: Neem is a potent bio-pesticide that acts as a repellent, antifeedant, and insect growth regulator.   
    • Recipe: Take a large handful (approx. 100g) of fresh neem leaves. Pound or crush them. Soak the crushed leaves in 1 liter of water for 12-24 hours. Strain the liquid thoroughly.   
    • Application: Spray the undiluted extract on plants, covering all surfaces. Apply every 7-10 days as a preventative measure.
  • Garlic and Chili Repellent Spray: This potent combination works by repelling a wide range of pests through its strong smell and irritant properties.
    • Recipe: Finely chop or crush one whole bulb of garlic and 3-5 hot chili peppers. Add them to 1 liter of water and let it steep for at least 24 hours. Strain the mixture well and add a few drops of mild liquid soap to help the spray adhere to plant leaves.   
    • Application: Spray on affected plants every 3-7 days until the pest problem subsides.
  • Simple Soap Spray: This is effective against soft-bodied insects like aphids, mealybugs, and mites. The soap dissolves the insect's outer protective layer.
    • Recipe: Mix 1-2 teaspoons of a mild liquid soap (use a natural castile soap or a simple dish soap without bleach or degreasers) into 1 liter of water.   
    • Application: Spray directly onto pests. This spray only works on contact, so reapplication every 4-7 days may be necessary. It is wise to rinse the plants with plain water a few hours after application to remove soap residue.   

Section 6: Operator and Environmental Safety: A Non-Negotiable Protocol

The principles of Integrated Pest Management extend beyond crop health to encompass the well-being of the nursery operator and the surrounding environment. While the IPM framework strongly advocates for minimizing the use of synthetic chemicals, it acknowledges that they may be used as a last resort. When they are, safety is not optional; it is a critical and non-negotiable component of professional nursery management. The guidelines provided in the Nepali manual, नर्सरीमा रोग र कीराहरुको रोकथाम तथा नियन्त्रण, offer a clear and essential protocol for handling these hazardous materials.   

The Golden Rule: Treat all pesticides, whether chemical, botanical, or biological, with respect and caution. However, synthetic chemical fungicides and insecticides are poisons and require the highest level of care to mitigate risks to human health and the environment. A culture of safety is a hallmark of a well-managed nursery.   

Key Safety Protocols:

  • During Mixing and Application:
    • No Distractions: Absolutely no eating, drinking, or smoking should occur while handling or applying pesticides. This prevents accidental ingestion of toxic chemicals.   
    • Weather Conditions: Do not apply liquid pesticides on windy days, as spray drift can carry the chemicals to non-target areas, including neighboring fields, water sources, or onto the operator. Application is best done in calm, sunny weather, which allows the product to dry on the foliage and enhances its efficacy.   
    • Personal Protective Equipment (PPE): This is mandatory. Operators must wear appropriate PPE, including chemical-resistant gloves, masks or respirators, eye protection, and long-sleeved clothing and boots to prevent skin contact and inhalation.   
  • After Application:
    • Personal Hygiene: Immediately after finishing the application, wash hands and any exposed skin thoroughly with soap and water. Clothes worn during spraying should be removed and washed separately from other household laundry.   
    • Equipment Cleaning: The sprayer or watering can used for pesticides must be triple-rinsed immediately after use. The rinse water should be safely disposed of in the same manner as leftover pesticides, not poured onto the ground or into a water source.   
  • Storage and Disposal:
    • Secure Storage: All pesticides must be stored in their original, tightly sealed, and clearly labeled containers. They should be kept in a dedicated, locked box or cabinet, in a dry, well-ventilated area that is completely inaccessible to children and animals and separate from food, feed, and seed storage.   
    • Safe Disposal: This is one of the most critical safety procedures. Empty pesticide containers must never be reused for any other purpose, such as storing water or food. They are contaminated and pose a severe health risk. Both empty containers and any unused or leftover pesticide solution must be disposed of by burying them in a pit at least 1 meter deep. This pit should be located far away from any wells, streams, ponds, or other water sources to prevent contamination of groundwater.   

Even when using "natural" or "organic" botanical pesticides like those made from chili and garlic, basic safety should be practiced. These can be strong irritants, so wearing gloves and eye protection during preparation and application is a wise precaution. A holistic culture of safety protects the operator, their family, the community, and the long-term health of the nursery environment.

Conclusion & Monthly Checklist

The July monsoon presents the most intense environmental pressures a Nepali nursery will face all year. The relentless combination of rain, humidity, and warmth creates a crucible that tests the resilience of both plants and management systems. However, by shifting from a reactive posture to a proactive, integrated strategy, nursery operators can successfully mitigate these risks and lay the foundation for a healthy, productive season.

The core of this strategy is a holistic understanding of the nursery as an ecosystem. Success in July does not come from a single silver-bullet solution, but from the synergistic effect of multiple, layered actions. It begins with mastering water through engineered drainage and disciplined irrigation. It is built upon the foundation of a clean, well-aerated environment and a living, disease-suppressive soil, cultivated through the use of Tricho-compost. It is defended by a tiered IPM approach that prioritizes cultural disruption and biological allies over chemical dependency, leveraging powerful, low-cost local resources like Jholmal and botanical pesticides. Ultimately, this integrated framework is not only ecologically sound but also economically astute, leading to lower input costs, higher plant survival rates, improved long-term soil fertility, and enhanced operator safety. By embracing these principles, the challenges of the monsoon can be transformed into an opportunity to build a more resilient, sustainable, and profitable nursery enterprise.   

Monthly Action Checklist for July

Weekly Tasks:

  • Water Management: Check soil moisture one inch deep before every watering. Do not water if the soil is moist. Ensure all drainage holes in pots and channels in beds are clear of debris.
  • Sanitation: Conduct a daily "clean sweep" of the nursery. Remove all weeds and any leaves or plants showing signs of disease. Dispose of diseased material far from the nursery.
  • Pest & Disease Scouting: Inspect plants thoroughly, especially under leaves and at the soil line, for early signs of pests (e.g., cutworm damage, snail trails) or disease (e.g., damping-off, leaf spots).
  • Mechanical Control: Hand-pick and destroy any visible pests such as caterpillars, grubs, snails, and slugs.
  • Preventative Spraying: During periods of high humidity and continuous rain, apply a preventative foliar spray of Jholmal-3 or a neem/garlic-based botanical pesticide. Spray in the early morning or evening.

Bi-Weekly Tasks (Every 15 Days):

  • Compost Management: Turn the main compost and/or Tricho-compost pile to ensure proper aeration. Check for correct moisture levels.
  • Bio-Fertilization: Apply a soil drench of Jholmal-1 (diluted 1:3) around the base of established plants to provide a nutrient boost.

Monthly Tasks:

  • Review and Plan: Review this bulletin at the beginning of the month. Assess the specific conditions in your nursery and prioritize actions accordingly.
  • Supply Check: Ensure you have adequate stocks of materials needed for preparing Tricho-compost, Jholmal, and botanical sprays. Restock any necessary safety equipment (gloves, masks).
  • Record Keeping: Keep a simple log of pest and disease observations, treatments applied, and their effectiveness. This data will be invaluable for refining your IPM strategy in future seasons


Sources

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